In the lush, rain-soaked hills of Idukki, a place that receives 3,600 mm of monsoon rain on an average each year, one might think water access would never be a contentious issue. Yet, last summer, the Nedumkandam police station found itself facing an unexpected rash of crimes: one or two cases each month alleging water theft. As local politicians and ward members intervened to address the issue, the community grappled with a stark irony—how could a district so blessed with rainfall face a crisis of water scarcity?
Among the most affected are the cardamom farmers whose livelihoods are at stake.
Sanoy Joseph, a cardamom plantation owner in Karunapuram was just back from his farmland. His family had been cultivating ginger, pepper, and cardamom in Idukki for almost seven decades now. But they have become dependent on a single variety of cardamom. It benefited them in the past, helping generate huge revenues but now the water intensive nature of farming, needed to sustain high yield has made it unsustainable.
The changing climate conditions in the hill district are creating significant challenges for cardamom cultivation, which requires an optimum temperature. Rising temperatures beyond the optimal range for cardamom (15 to 28 degree Celsius) make the cultivation unsustainable as the crop becomes water intensive. A six-month investigation into cardamom cultivation and datasets of groundwater usage reveal that cardamom is unsustainable as a crop.
The lush landscape of the misty hills of Idukki has transformed the lives of countless migrant farmers who have come to depend on this aromatic and profitable cash crop for their livelihoods. According to the Spices Board of India statistics for the year 2023-24, the total area of cardamom cultivation in Kerala is over 40,000 hectares, which is less than 2% of the gross cropped area.
“Cardamom is the primary source of income in Idukki. It always has high demand in the market. Consequently, people continue to cultivate cardamom despite any sacrifices they may have to make,” said Rashmi Vijayan, the Assistant Director at the Nedumkandam Agriculture Office.
During the COVID-19 pandemic, many residents in the high ranges of Idukki turned to cardamom cultivation as a vital source of income. Cardamom, known for its resilience and profitability, became an attractive option due to its high market demand and favorable growing conditions in the region.
Cardamom production has increased significantly, doubling during the pandemic. Since then, production has continued to rise steadily to over 22,000 tonnes in 2023. The area dedicated to cardamom cultivation has remained largely consistent in the past decade, indicating better yields in the past four years.
The unexpected COVID-19 lockdown forced K Pathmanabhan, a graduate from Theni district, Tamil Nadu, to seek alternative means of livelihood. "I was the supervisor at the TVS showroom in Chennai. When COVID hit, I lost my job. With some savings I had, I took five acres of cardamom land on lease here in Mavady. In 2024 I suffered a huge loss. This time, I hope that won't happen. We won’t survive such a loss again," said 34-year-old Pathmanabhan.
Cardamom is known as the queen of spices. Before cardamom was cultivated in a traditional manner, it thrived as a wild crop in the dense forests of the Western Ghats. The Cardamom Hill Reserves (CHR), located in Kerala's Idukki district, became its primary habitat. But after the 1990s, a single variety of cardamom - Njallani - took over, pushing out many other varieties.
“We used to cultivate the cardamom varieties like Mysore Vazhukka, Kanipparamban, 9 bolt, Elam Rani and Palakkudi. But the Njallani with its high yield, easily became the star,” said Joseph, a former farmer, and father of Sanoy. Year-round harvesting and climate adaptability were the key features of the Njallani variety endearing them to farmers.
“Every kitchen around the world has a little bit of Idukki,” wrote Bhavesh Sawariya, the cofounder of Graamya Organic Spices, in his article about Idukki’s food culture. It is almost true with the case of cardamom. Whether it's a tea, dessert or biryani the spice could elevate the experience into another level with its flavor and aroma. That's why this little green pod of cardamom has consistent demand in the domestic and international market. And the huge revenue it generates made farmers stick with this crop. According to the current market price, the maximum price for the small cardamom is around Rs 4500.
The early onset of summer of 2024, had caught everyone off guard and has laid bare the risk of clearing forest cover for cardamom. By February, the mercury had already climbed past 36 degrees Celsius, a stark departure from typical weather patterns. The farmers found themselves unprepared for the heat wave that swept across the region, driven largely by the El Niño phenomenon. As temperatures soared above 33 degrees Celsius in Idukki, the lush landscapes that once thrived under cooler conditions began to show signs of distress. The local farmers, particularly those cultivating cardamom—a crop that flourishes in milder climates—watched helplessly as their plants wilted under the relentless sun.
Farmers, in their pursuit of green gold, forgot about the importance of the green cover to withstand heat waves. “Njallani variety requires 40% less shade compared to other varieties. Many farmers cut down trees and played a role in increasing the soil and temperature in cardamom plantations,” said Reshmi Vijayan, Assistant Director of Agriculture at Nedumkandam agriculture office.
The economic damage was severe. Nine in 10 hectares of cardamom crops were either completely or partially destroyed in Idukki. “We tried everything we could. At a point of time I stopped irrigating the plants and saved remaining water for household tasks. We were terrified,” said Sanoy Joseph. "We used to pump water for 12 hours in a day; 6pm to 6am, in our 1 lakh litre tank.”
In Kerala, the amount of groundwater used for domestic needs slightly exceeds that used for irrigation. The state uses 6 out of every 10 liters for household use compared to major groundwater guzzlers like Uttar Pradesh, where only one out of every 10 liters of pumped groundwater goes to people's houses. In 2023, Kerala extracted 1.12 billion cubic meters (bcm) of groundwater for agricultural use. This is the lowest groundwater usage among all the states in Southern India.
In Kerala, 6 out of every 10 hectares of farmland are dedicated to coconut, rubber, rice, cardamom, and other cash crops. While they have brought economic prosperity, they come at an environmental cost—depleting water resources and stripping the soil of nutrients.
In Idukki district, Kattappana and Nedumkandam have consistently been categorised as “semi-critical” in the past decade. Elamdesam, a block panchayat, joined them only in 2017.
The Central Groundwater Board classifies areas with groundwater extraction rate between 70% and 90% of the annually replenishable groundwater recharge as semi-critical. While not as severe as critical or over-exploited areas, these regions require cautious management to prevent further stress on the resource.
Nedumkandam and Kattappana are the top producers of cardamom in the Idukki district. Nedumkandam, Kattappana and Elam Desam use most of their groundwater for cardamom plantations.
From 2009 to 2023, the groundwater extraction rates of Idukki district increased drastically. More than half of the available groundwater (54.21%) was pumped out by Idukki in 2023, a noticeable rise compared to 14 years ago when it was only 42%. Many areas of Nedumkandam and Kattappana blocks in the high ranges are facing shortage of water for irrigation and domestic needs especially during summer because of indiscriminate sinking of borewells.
“Idukki’s agriculture landscape depended on rainfed irrigation once. The seasonal rain and the dewdrops from the trees were enough for the crops. But now we have to irrigate the plants to get a good yield.” Vinayan from Mavady said.
India's total groundwater extraction in 2023 was at around 241 bcm or 11 times higher than the total annual surface runoff into Vembanad Lake, the country's largest lake. Nine out of ten litres of water pumped out in India is used for agriculture.
But the groundwater extraction trend in South India is different. In 2023, the five South Indian states collectively used up about one out of five litres of groundwater in India, just under the amount consumed by Uttar Pradesh alone, the top state using groundwater.
Kerala's groundwater extraction rate is significantly lower than the other neighboring states. According to the data analysis, In 2023, Kerala used the least groundwater of all the states in South India. It uses only around one out of every 100 liters of groundwater pumped across the country. The average groundwater extraction in Kerala over the past decade has been consistently low at around 2.68 bcm.
“Kerala has the lowest groundwater extraction in South India, primarily because groundwater is not heavily used for irrigation. And we have enough surface water resources across the state. But the quality of the surface water is decreasing. It directly reflects in the rates of groundwater extraction in the state.” Explained water conservation program Officer of Haritha Keralam Mission, RV Satish.
Analysis of data shows, over the past six years, Kerala's total groundwater extraction has slightly risen, although groundwater use for irrigation has declined by 7.96%.
As surface water resources become increasingly contaminated, people turn to dugwells and borewells to meet their water needs; however, rapid urbanization and population growth drive up water demand, even as many abandon agriculture.
In 2023, Kerala had three critical zones and thirty semi-critical zones in Kerala. The groundwater resources are currently in a critical state in Palakkad and Kasaragod—two districts that heavily rely on groundwater for irrigation.
In Idukki, where more than 20% of their gross cropped area is dedicated to irrigation may face similar risk. As per the sixth minor irrigation survey report of Kerala, Idukki majorly depends on surface lift. However, Idukki is also listed among the leading districts that depend on deep and medium tube wells for irrigation, in the league of major groundwater extracting districts of Kerala.
“If we irrigate cardamom with more water, anticipating last year's temperatures, and then receive ample rainfall this monsoon, the crop may end up rotting. The unpredictability of the weather makes it challenging to manage irrigation effectively. We need to make changes in our farming practices and crops according to the changing climate,” said Vinayakan, a cardamom farmer.
Farmers across Kerala are struggling to adapt to a rapidly changing environment, where traditional practices are no longer sustainable or not sufficient. With monoculture dominating the landscape and micro-irrigation adoption lagging far behind national averages, Kerala's agricultural future hangs in the balance. In this background, it is essential to bring the concerned departments together under a unified framework.
Retired Deputy Director of Agriculture, Rukmani R said the agricultural sector in Kerala must not waste time in prioritising crop suitability. A major challenge is the monocropping of plantation crops, conducted without considering the land's slope, soil structure, availability of water, and climate change.
"But persuading farmers to change their crop patterns and irrigation practices can be challenging, especially when they are cultivating high-demand crops with significant market value," said Nisha, the assistant director of agriculture at Kanjirappally agriculture office.
Even if sustainable measures are available the ground reality is different. While many advocate for organic farming methods, it's not as simple as it sounds; it is time-consuming and costly. A poor farmer simply cannot afford that transition. For example, the cost of micro irrigation materials is significantly lower in Tamil Nadu compared to Kerala, prompting some farmers' collectives to travel there for bulk purchases; however, individual farmers with around 1 hectares of land often hesitate due to the transportation costs involved in going to Tamil Nadu.
The Sub-Mission on Agricultural Mechanization (SMAM) is an initiative launched by the Government of India in 2014-15, aimed at promoting the use of agricultural machinery to enhance productivity and efficiency in farming. The Micro irrigation Scheme is an integral component aimed at enhancing water use efficiency in agriculture. This initiative aligns with the broader objectives of promoting sustainable agricultural practices and improving productivity among farmers, particularly small and marginal farmers.
Farmers in Kerala rarely participate in national initiatives to increase micro-irrigation use. For every 200 hectares of irrigated fields in Kerala only around three are under micro irrigation. Districts with the highest groundwater extraction rate have very minimal adoption rate of micro- irrigation.
In regions facing severe water stress, people struggle to find water even 1,200 feet underground. "We installed sprinklers on our farmland, but there isn’t enough water even for micro-irrigation. So, what’s the point?,” said Nirmal, a young farmer from Mavady, Idukki.
Nisha, an agricultural officer in Kanjirappally, said micro irrigation is gaining acceptance albeit slowly. "The farmers who adopted micro irrigation methods three years back, now get good yields. This encourages other people to shift to micro irrigation.” The farmers who installed micro irrigation reduced the labor cost and got high yields. However, the high costs associated with drip irrigation deter many farmers, making it unaffordable for the average farmer despite its benefits.
The districts with the highest adoption rates of micro irrigation methods in Kerala have an average adoption rate of only 1.56%. The crops with the highest adoption rates of micro irrigation—nutmeg, coconut, and banana —each have adoption rates of less than 1% while crops that account for the smallest area of cultivation in Kerala have the highest rates of micro-irrigation at just over 3%.
In Idukki, the increase in cardamom yield has taken a toll on the ecosystem. Three decades of monocropping one variety of cardamom has left the soil unable to regenerate between growing seasons and resist pests, according to scientists. On the journey from the Kattappana bus stand to Nedumkandam town, one can see huge stocks of pesticides on roadsides that vendors claim protect the cardamom plants not only from bugs, but also from fungi, bacteria and drought. It would not be an exaggeration to say pesticide shops in Nedumkandam town outnumber other shops.
“Cardamom monocropping has resulted in all forms of soil degradation. Most of the borewells run at depth ranging from 400 feet to 1000 feet depending upon the slope gradient rainfall pattern. The groundwater extraction is steadily increasing on a yearly basis. Pesticide cocktail chemicals applied during rain less hot summer period make cardamom plants suffer more retard growth, flowering etc,” said Muthuswamy Murugan, an agro-ecologist at Cardamom Research Station (CRR), Pampadumpara.
A 2022 CRR study jointly done with researchers from other institutions across India, Cardamom cultivation in CHR has increased pests and disease concerns, posing a serious threat. Planters believe that spraying large quantities of pesticides directly on plants is necessary for pest and disease management.
“The Agricultural Department does not suggest or recommend specific practices but farmers often use pesticides and chemical fertilizers in large quantities to increase yield. Farmers also have their own mixture,” said Rashmi Vijayan, Assistant Director, Idukki Agriculture Office.
In the summer of 2024, there was a severe shortage of drinking water in Idukki. But some farmers who could afford it bought tanker water from private suppliers to irrigate their cardamom plants anticipating high market price due to the widespread crop losses. Their prediction proved accurate, with cardamom prices rising by up to ₹3,000 per kilogram.
Rajesh Kumar, Assistant Director of Agriculture in Karunapuram, as an official and a resident of the area, was witness to changes in cardamom cultivation undergone in the last two decades. “Following the construction of roads everywhere, borewell companies and large vehicles for drilling borewells began to arrive. Farmers here have drilled borewells at 1200 feet below, ”said Rajesh Kumar.
Sanoy, who has a farm in Karunapuram has realized that the Njallani variety he currently uses is unsuitable for the region's groundwater availability. Indigenous varieties like Mysore Vazhukka, Kanipparamban, 9 bolt, Elam Rani and Palakkudi which give lower yields are drought-resistant but he is hesitant about making a shift. If drought conditions persist like last year, Sanoy said he would consider replanting with coffee or pepper instead of the indigenous variety.
The local cardamom cultivators are reluctant to switch to other food crops primarily due to wildlife conflicts; while they previously cultivated tubers and vegetables, severe attacks from wild boars and elephants have made those options untenable, whereas cardamom is not affected by such issues.
Kerala is experiencing an intense summer this year as well. By February 2025, temperatures have already reached up to 40 degrees Celsius. If the heat continues for the next two weeks, cardamom farmers fear widespread crop damage, similar to last year.
When asked about their plans if their summer crops fail again this year, the general response from cardamom farmers in Idukki is that they would switch to pepper, which is not water intensive and has a favorable market. Many farmers in the highlands and midlands of Kerala are also moving away from traditional cash crops and turning to cultivation of exotic fruits like rambutan or mahkota dewa (God’s crown), which has medicinal uses.
METHODOLOGY
This data story investigates the critical issue of water stress in the Idukki district, famously known as the "Spice Hub of India," and explores how overreliance on groundwater extraction for irrigation exacerbates this problem, particularly during the summer season. It further highlights how changing climatic conditions demand a shift toward sustainable cropping and irrigation practices for a resilient future.
To construct this story, we scraped, cleaned, and analysed data on a range of authoritative sources:
2013 to 2023 Crop production and land use data from the Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare
Central Groundwater Board's water resource database, for comprehensive details on groundwater extraction and utilization trends in India over the years 2013-2023
2019 to 2023 State-wise irrigation practices and land-use patterns from the Kerala Department of Economics & Statistics
Micro Irrigation Progress Monitoring System, showcasing adoption trends of micro-irrigation techniques and their impact on water use efficiency from 2015 to August 2024.
Reporting for this story was supported by the Environmental Data Journalism Academy - a program of Internews’ Earth Journalism Network and Thibi.
Arathi MR is an independent journalist who is interested in writing about caste, gender, intersectionality and development. She currently works with the Keraleeyam Masika as their Special Correspondent.